Struck-By Hazards: Analysis & Controls
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Struck-by hazards involve a worker being hit by a falling, flying, swinging, or rolling object. This category is one of OSHA's Fatal Four and consistently ranks as the second leading cause of death in the construction industry, behind only falls. Struck-by incidents include objects falling from elevation (tools dropped from scaffolding, materials dislodged during crane lifts), flying debris from power tools or explosions, swinging loads during rigging operations, and rolling vehicles or equipment on grade.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 248 construction workers died from struck-by incidents in 2022. Across all industries, the broader "contact with objects and equipment" category claimed 738 lives that year. Nonfatal struck-by injuries are far more common — BLS recorded approximately 52,780 cases involving days away from work in the private sector in 2022, making it one of the highest-volume injury categories. Head injuries, fractures, and eye injuries dominate the nonfatal struck-by cases.
Effective struck-by prevention requires controlling objects at their source: securing tools and materials at height, establishing exclusion zones around crane operations, using toe boards and debris nets on scaffolds, and maintaining safe distances from heavy equipment swing radii. A well-constructed Job Safety Analysis identifies where objects could become projectiles or fall from elevation at each step of a task, then layers engineering controls, administrative procedures, and personal protective equipment to reduce risk to an acceptable level.
Disclaimer
This content is provided for general informational and educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for a site-specific Job Safety Analysis conducted by a qualified safety professional familiar with your workplace conditions, equipment, and personnel. OSHA citations, BLS statistics, and hazard controls referenced here may not reflect the most current standards or apply to your specific situation. Always consult current OSHA regulations, manufacturer guidelines, and a competent person before beginning work. Health & Safety Systems LLC assumes no liability for actions taken based on this content.
Incident Statistics
248
Fatalities (2022)
52,780
Nonfatal Injuries (2022)
#2 Fatal Four
Second leading cause of construction deaths
Struck-by incidents killed 248 construction workers in 2022 and caused over 52,000 nonfatal injuries requiring days away from work across all private industry.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) and Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII), 2022
Document Struck-By Hazards: Analysis & Controls Controls in Your JSA
Use JSABuilder to identify hazards, assign controls, and share safety plans with your team.
Start Free TrialHierarchy of Controls
The hierarchy of controls ranks protective measures from most to least effective. Apply controls from the top of the hierarchy first.
Elimination
Remove the struck-by hazard entirely by redesigning the work process so no objects can fall, fly, swing, or roll toward workers.
- Prefabricate assemblies at ground level to eliminate overhead work and the potential for dropped tools and materials
- Use ground-level material staging instead of storing materials on upper floors or scaffolding platforms
Substitution
Replace high-risk materials, tools, or methods with alternatives that reduce struck-by potential.
- Substitute lighter-weight composite materials for heavy steel components to reduce severity if a drop occurs
- Use vacuum lifters or magnetic handlers instead of manual rigging with slings that can fail or shift
Engineering Controls
Install physical barriers, containment systems, and mechanical safeguards that prevent objects from reaching workers.
- Install toe boards (minimum 3.5 inches), mid-rails, and debris nets on all scaffold platforms and open-sided floors
- Use canopy structures or catch platforms over walkways and work areas below overhead operations
- Install protective cab guards (FOPS — Falling Object Protective Structures) on heavy equipment per SAE J231
- Erect barricades and exclusion zones around crane swing radius and load travel paths
Administrative Controls
Establish procedures, training, and communication practices that reduce struck-by exposure.
- Implement a tool-tethering program requiring all hand tools used at height to be lanyard-attached per ANSI/ISEA 121
- Designate a signal person for all crane lifts and enforce "never stand under a suspended load" as an absolute rule
- Conduct daily pre-task briefings identifying overhead work zones, swing hazards, and vehicle traffic patterns
- Use spotters and audible backup alarms for all reversing vehicles and equipment on site
PPE
Provide personal protective equipment rated for impact protection as the final defense layer.
- Hard hats (ANSI/ISEA Z89.1 Type I Class E or Type II) for all workers in struck-by exposure zones
- Safety glasses with side shields or face shields when flying debris is present (grinding, chipping, sawing)
- Metatarsal-guard safety boots for workers handling heavy materials or working below overhead lifts
Applicable OSHA Standards
Federal OSHA standards that address this hazard type, with enforcement data where available.
29 CFR 1926.251 — Rigging Equipment for Material Handling
198 citations (FY 2024)
Establishes requirements for wire rope, chains, synthetic slings, and other rigging hardware used to hoist and move materials, including inspection, load rating, and safe use practices.
29 CFR 1926.250 — General Requirements for Materials Handling, Storage, Use, and Disposal
85 citations (FY 2024)
Requires that materials stored in tiers be stacked, blocked, interlocked, and limited in height to prevent sliding, falling, or collapse. Aisles and passageways must be kept clear.
29 CFR 1926.651 — Specific Excavation Requirements
604 citations (FY 2024)
Includes protections against struck-by hazards from falling excavated material, requiring spoil piles to be set back at least 2 feet from the edge of excavations.
29 CFR 1926.701 — Concrete and Masonry Construction — General Requirements
72 citations (FY 2024)
Addresses protections during concrete placement and masonry work, including requirements to prevent workers from being struck by falling forms, reinforcing steel, or masonry units.
29 CFR 1926.502 — Fall Protection Systems Criteria and Practices
1,029 citations (FY 2024)
While primarily a fall protection standard, it mandates toe boards, screens, and guardrail systems on open-sided platforms that also serve as struck-by protection for workers below.
Industries Most Affected
Construction
Multi-level job sites with overhead crane lifts, scaffolding, roofing, and demolition create constant struck-by exposure from falling tools, materials, and debris.
Logging
Falling trees, rolling logs, snapping cables, and flying wood debris give logging the highest fatality rate of any occupation, with struck-by as the primary mechanism of death.
Warehousing & Distribution
Improperly stacked pallets, forklift tip-overs, falling inventory from elevated racking, and struck-by-vehicle incidents in high-traffic aisles contribute to warehouse injuries.
Mining
Rock falls, rib rolls, flyrock from blasting operations, and mobile equipment contact in confined underground roadways make struck-by a leading fatality cause in mining.
Transportation
Workers on loading docks, in intermodal yards, and along roadway work zones face struck-by risks from shifting cargo, swinging container doors, and passing vehicular traffic.
Required Personal Protective Equipment
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the four types of struck-by hazards?
OSHA categorizes struck-by hazards into four subtypes: struck-by flying objects (debris ejected from tools, machines, or explosions), struck-by falling objects (tools or materials dropped from elevation), struck-by swinging objects (loads on cranes or suspended materials that shift), and struck-by rolling objects (vehicles, pipes, or equipment that roll toward workers on grade). Each subtype requires different control strategies in a JSA.
How many workers die from struck-by incidents each year?
In 2022, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported 248 struck-by fatalities in construction alone. Across all industries, the contact with objects and equipment category — which includes struck-by, caught-in, and caught-between — totaled 738 fatal work injuries. Struck-by is consistently the second leading cause of construction fatalities after falls from elevation.
What is the OSHA standard for tool tethering?
OSHA does not have a specific tool-tethering standard, but the ANSI/ISEA 121-2018 standard (Dropped Object Prevention Solutions) provides classifications and testing requirements for tool tethers, anchor points, and tool containers. OSHA cites the General Duty Clause (Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act) when issuing violations for failure to protect workers below from dropped tools when no specific standard applies.
What PPE protects against struck-by hazards?
Hard hats rated to ANSI/ISEA Z89.1 are the primary struck-by PPE for falling objects. Safety glasses with side shields meeting ANSI Z87.1 protect against flying particles. Face shields add protection during grinding or chipping. Steel-toed boots with metatarsal guards protect feet from dropped objects. High-visibility vests meeting ANSI/ISEA 107 reduce struck-by-vehicle risk. However, PPE is always the last line of defense after engineering and administrative controls.
What is a Falling Object Protective Structure (FOPS)?
A FOPS is a structural cab guard installed on heavy equipment such as forklifts, excavators, and loaders to protect the operator from falling objects. FOPS are tested and rated under SAE J231 and ISO 3449 standards. OSHA requires FOPS on equipment operating in areas where there is a risk of falling objects, such as demolition sites, logging operations, and areas near overhead crane operations.
How should a JSA address struck-by hazards on a construction site?
Break the task into sequential steps and identify every point where objects could fall from elevation, be ejected from tools, swing on rigging, or roll on grade. For each struck-by exposure, specify the control: toe boards on scaffolds, debris nets, tool lanyards, exclusion zones during lifts, barricades around swing radii, and spotter requirements for vehicle operations. Assign responsibility for inspecting controls and specify the required PPE for each step.